Planting Woodland
A practical guide to planting and managing new woodlands for communities and individuals
Is planting necessary?
Before planting a new woodland on a site consider whether it is going to be necessary at all. Sites that have not been cultivated for many years, such as old industrial sites, gravel pits and long abandoned land will already have developed a flora of their own and might even have some developing woodland.
Enrichment Planting
This is the addition of a new species of tree, generally oak, sometimes hazel, to a site so that the resulting woodland is more biodiverse and has the potential to produce quality hardwood timber in the long term. It can be a cheap and effective way of transforming developing scrub, dominated by hawthorn, blackthorn or sallow, into a thriving oakwood.
Oak trees can also establish themselves quite easily on open ground if mature parent trees are nearby. The acorns germinate as soon as they fall from the parent tree. The large food reserve in the acorn enables it to immediately grow a strong, long root so that by the following spring the seedling is already firmly rooted in the ground.
Oak trees can also establish themselves quite easily on open ground if mature parent trees are nearby. The acorns germinate as soon as they fall from the parent tree. The large food reserve in the acorn enables it to immediately grow a strong, long root so that by the following spring the seedling is already firmly rooted in the ground.
If there are no mature oaks nearby, young trees, 20-50cm tall, should be planted to enrich any natural regeneration. They should be protected with a 20cm vole guard or 60cm rabbit guard. Voles are abundant in rough grassland and will immediately chew through unprotected trees. Rabbits tend to avoid rough grassland, preferring short grass for feeding.
Young oak leaves are very palatable to herbivores, but the guards will give the young trees protection for the first year at least. During this time the tree will put all its energy into growing a long tap root allowing it to source water in periods of drought. As the oak tree emerges from its guard the leaves and shoots will be exposed to grazing by deer. The tree will respond by repeated branching and, if necessary, by sending up completely new shoots from the base, all fed by the well-established root system. The result is an untidy bush. At this point many foresters throw up their hands in horror, convinced that they will only ever get a scrubby little oak tree; but wait a few more years and the oak bush will get so wide that deer cannot reach into the centre.
Young oak leaves are very palatable to herbivores, but the guards will give the young trees protection for the first year at least. During this time the tree will put all its energy into growing a long tap root allowing it to source water in periods of drought. As the oak tree emerges from its guard the leaves and shoots will be exposed to grazing by deer. The tree will respond by repeated branching and, if necessary, by sending up completely new shoots from the base, all fed by the well-established root system. The result is an untidy bush. At this point many foresters throw up their hands in horror, convinced that they will only ever get a scrubby little oak tree; but wait a few more years and the oak bush will get so wide that deer cannot reach into the centre.
A new shoot will grow from the centre unmolested by deer as shown by the oak on the right in this photo. Surrounding trees and shrubs will shelter the young oak tree and direct the new shoot upwards as it searches for light. All the tree’s energies are now focussed on the new shoot which grows strongly. In time the scrubby growth at the base of the tree will be shaded out and eaten back to leave a perfectly straight, strong young oak tree.
New Woodlands
Of course, a new natural woodland is much more than a stand of oak trees. It has canopy trees, an understorey and a dense woodland edge that flowers and fruits throughout the year. To achieve this many new species of trees and shrubs must be established on the proposed woodland site.
It may seem strange that the first step in establishing a so-called natural woodland is to plant a whole lot of new plant material. Then the natural vegetation must be controlled to stop it choking the young trees and wild herbivores prevented from eating the saplings. It all seems very unnatural. But if there is no woodland nearby, there will be very limited opportunity for trees and shrubs to arrive naturally, so a wide variety of tree species must be introduced at the beginning and carefully nurtured through the early years to see which trees are going to grow the best. This is the only way to get a thriving natural woodland established quickly on open ground.
Ground Preparation
It is vital to get young trees growing quickly from the moment that they are planted. New roots will grow best in well aerated soil with adequate nutrients. Other soil characteristics such as pH, moisture and soil depth cannot be changed, but should be reflected in the choice of species.
If the site has been an arable field, then the soil will have been cultivated and well fertilised, so no further ground preparation will be needed. The young trees can be planted through the stubble of the previous crop. This provides a good surface for the tree planters to work on. Any cultivations after harvest produce wet sticky soils in the winter and difficult working conditions for tree planters. If a grass sward is required, this must be sown in the Spring before planting, this will ensure that it is well established by planting time.
Permanent grass fields may have become compacted over the years, particularly on soils with a high clay content. It is difficult for roots to penetrate solid ground. This can lead to losses in the first year and prolong the establishment phase at great expense. Rather than cultivate the whole site it may be enough to pull a subsoiling tine through what will become the planting lines (see Planting Patterns). This should be done in late summer before planting while the soil is at its driest. Pulling a subsoiling tine through wet soils with a high clay content will cause a crack in the ground to develop the following summer and leave any tree roots dangling in the air.
If the site has been an arable field, then the soil will have been cultivated and well fertilised, so no further ground preparation will be needed. The young trees can be planted through the stubble of the previous crop. This provides a good surface for the tree planters to work on. Any cultivations after harvest produce wet sticky soils in the winter and difficult working conditions for tree planters. If a grass sward is required, this must be sown in the Spring before planting, this will ensure that it is well established by planting time.
Permanent grass fields may have become compacted over the years, particularly on soils with a high clay content. It is difficult for roots to penetrate solid ground. This can lead to losses in the first year and prolong the establishment phase at great expense. Rather than cultivate the whole site it may be enough to pull a subsoiling tine through what will become the planting lines (see Planting Patterns). This should be done in late summer before planting while the soil is at its driest. Pulling a subsoiling tine through wet soils with a high clay content will cause a crack in the ground to develop the following summer and leave any tree roots dangling in the air.
Choice of Species
Choosing the mix of species for a new woodland involves an understanding of how a woodland is structured. A list of species which are suitable for the site is only the first step. Species should be selected which will contribute to the aims of the woodland. Traditionally this has meant choosing trees that will produce a crop of timber and nothing else. New woodland planting should aim to establish a woodland habitat in which wildlife can flourish. Timber producing trees such as oak also grow better in a natural woodland environment than they do in a pure oak plantation.
When planting a new wood from scratch, take the opportunity to get the largest possible variety of suitable species established. It doesn’t matter that some will fail, their place will soon be taken by their more successful neighbours. The greater the variety of trees and shrubs planted, the greater the variety of insects that will be attracted to the wood. And the greater the variety of insects – the greater the number and variety of birds, and so on.
When planting a new wood from scratch, take the opportunity to get the largest possible variety of suitable species established. It doesn’t matter that some will fail, their place will soon be taken by their more successful neighbours. The greater the variety of trees and shrubs planted, the greater the variety of insects that will be attracted to the wood. And the greater the variety of insects – the greater the number and variety of birds, and so on.
Trees for the Woodland Edge
The outer 5 metres or so of a woodland should be planted with shrubs and small trees to provide shelter for the inside of the wood. Without this shelter a woodland will be cold and draughty in winter, hot and dry in the summer.
The woodland edge is the showcase for the woodland. It gives that all important first impression, so plant shrubs such as guelder rose and spindle in groups that will give plenty of blossom in the Spring and vibrant colours in the Autumn.
The woodland edge is also the larder of the woodland. Because there is plenty of light, shrubs will flower and fruit profusely, so plant species which will flower and fruit through the seasons, that way there will always be food available for wildlife.
Hazel will be displaying their catkins in January. By March blackthorn and other Prunus species will be in flower providing food for early insects. In late April the woodland hawthorn will be in full flower followed by dogwood. As the weather warms up the flowers produce more scent and nectar, attracting more insects. In May through to June the dog rose and wild privet will be in full flower. At this time of year birds will be feeding their young so a constant succession of insects is vital.
The woodland edge is the showcase for the woodland. It gives that all important first impression, so plant shrubs such as guelder rose and spindle in groups that will give plenty of blossom in the Spring and vibrant colours in the Autumn.
The woodland edge is also the larder of the woodland. Because there is plenty of light, shrubs will flower and fruit profusely, so plant species which will flower and fruit through the seasons, that way there will always be food available for wildlife.
Hazel will be displaying their catkins in January. By March blackthorn and other Prunus species will be in flower providing food for early insects. In late April the woodland hawthorn will be in full flower followed by dogwood. As the weather warms up the flowers produce more scent and nectar, attracting more insects. In May through to June the dog rose and wild privet will be in full flower. At this time of year birds will be feeding their young so a constant succession of insects is vital.
The succession of flowering shrubs can be extended into July and August with the non-native Garden Privet and Buddleia. These are particularly welcomed by butterflies.
Cherry trees will have ripe fruit in July, followed in August by the berries of dogwood and wayfaring tree. Hazelnuts will ripen in early September if grey squirrels haven’t already eaten them in August. Vast quantities of hawthorn berries will feed winter thrushes well into the depths of winter.
The woodland edge is easily accessible for foraging. You could plant grafted fruit trees, but a more natural and cheaper alternative is to plant trees grown from seed. Dessert cherries, damsons, bullace and hazelnuts grown from pips, stones and nuts can all be grown quite easily. After a year they can be planted in the woodland edge and will produce fruit for free. Be aware that when growing fruit trees from seed the results will be variable, so plant several and then select the best.
Cherry trees will have ripe fruit in July, followed in August by the berries of dogwood and wayfaring tree. Hazelnuts will ripen in early September if grey squirrels haven’t already eaten them in August. Vast quantities of hawthorn berries will feed winter thrushes well into the depths of winter.
The woodland edge is easily accessible for foraging. You could plant grafted fruit trees, but a more natural and cheaper alternative is to plant trees grown from seed. Dessert cherries, damsons, bullace and hazelnuts grown from pips, stones and nuts can all be grown quite easily. After a year they can be planted in the woodland edge and will produce fruit for free. Be aware that when growing fruit trees from seed the results will be variable, so plant several and then select the best.
Trees for the Woodland
Shrubs on the woodland edge may bask in sunshine and flower freely, but for trees in the woodland interior there is only a limited amount of light – the only food that trees can use. The trees are in direct competition with their neighbours for the light and cannot waste resources on reproduction until they are successfully established. Trees should be selected that will make the best use of the available light by exploiting it in different ways.
Pioneer Trees
The pioneer trees such as birches and alders set off at a sprint to get their leaves high in the sky while other trees are still worrying about getting their roots well established first. It is well worth planting about 10-20% pioneer trees to get your new woodland off to a flying start. They provide song posts for birds in the first few years of the woodland’s life. Later they will provide shelter from the wind for the rest of the developing woodland. They will also be the first trees to die naturally in the woodland, giving the important habitats of standing dead timber and, later, fallen logs which are vital to a thriving woodland ecosystem.
Willows and poplars will also grow very fast, but these trees will soon dominate a new woodland and overshadow their neighbours. They are better planted in open countryside where they can grow to their full potential. A few grey willow and aspen could be planted in new woodlands. They support a large diversity of insect life – second only to oak trees.
Willows and poplars will also grow very fast, but these trees will soon dominate a new woodland and overshadow their neighbours. They are better planted in open countryside where they can grow to their full potential. A few grey willow and aspen could be planted in new woodlands. They support a large diversity of insect life – second only to oak trees.
Canopy Trees
Most of the photosynthesis within the woodland takes place in the canopy and therefore most of the carbon capture and timber production is in the canopy trees.
For any trees, particularly oaks, that may potentially produce good quality timber, it is well worth selecting young trees from a good source. Tree form is inherited. Any acorns collected from a scrubby oak tree will grow into trees of poor shape from the timber point of view.
At maturity the large canopy trees may be 8 metres apart, but young trees should be planted at 2.5 or 3 metre spacing. Natural selection and silvicultural thinning will ensure that only the finest specimens reach maturity.
For any trees, particularly oaks, that may potentially produce good quality timber, it is well worth selecting young trees from a good source. Tree form is inherited. Any acorns collected from a scrubby oak tree will grow into trees of poor shape from the timber point of view.
At maturity the large canopy trees may be 8 metres apart, but young trees should be planted at 2.5 or 3 metre spacing. Natural selection and silvicultural thinning will ensure that only the finest specimens reach maturity.
Understorey Trees
Understorey trees will not contribute much to the biomass production of the woodland, but they are vital in uniting the canopy trees with the ground vegetation thus making the woodland ecosystem complete. Many woodland birds such as robin, blackcap and nightingale simply do not live in a woodland without a good understorey.
Woodlands are generally described as covering an area, for example, a 10 hectare woodland. But a woodland with a complete understorey can be considered as a volume, so a 10 hectare woodland with a canopy reaching to 20 metres becomes 2 million cubic metres of the woodland ecosystem, with a further 100,000 cubic metres of the woodland soil ecosystem.
For the forester producing a crop of timber, the understorey is often considered a waste of space. After all it doesn’t produce timber of any value, but a good understorey is vital to produce good quality oak timber. The shade provided by the understorey keeps the stems of the oak trees clean and straight.
Trees planted to make an understorey should be partially shade tolerant. Their leaves will emerge early in Spring to make the best use of the light before they are shaded by the canopy trees.
Some understorey trees may try to compete for light with the canopy trees. These can be pollarded or coppiced later to keep them in the understorey.
The French have long had good success using hornbeam as an understorey for their magnificent oak woodlands. In lowland Britain, where grey squirrels strip the bark of young oak trees ruining their timber value, it is vital that field maple is included in the understorey of any new planting. All maples have a sweet sap which is favoured by grey squirrels. It doesn’t matter that the bark of the field maple is stripped, it will never make a good timber tree anyway. Planting new oak woods without maples in the understorey is asking for trouble. The simple act of planting sacrificial field maple in new broadleaved woodlands will do more than anything to ensure the future supply of quality oak timber from British woodlands. See blog on Grey Squirrels in Young Woodlands.
There is not the space here to give the attributes of every species that might be planted in a British woodland, but this chart shows the choice of species for a typical lowland wood on a loamy soil in eastern England.
All the species mentioned are compatible with the English Woodland Creation Offer (EWCO) grant, with the exception of ash which is not funded due to fears about Chalara infections. This is unfortunate because ash is a fundamental component of lowland British woodland ecosystems and an excellent timber tree as well. Ash can be planted successfully. Simple management techniques will help it to get through the vulnerable sapling stage. See blog on How to Grow Ash Trees Successfully.
The tree composition will be slightly different on different soils. Light, free draining soils could have sessile oak instead of pedunculate, rowan instead of wild service. Holly will also do well as part of the understorey. On shallow limestone soils all oaks will struggle and could be replaced by beech and ash. Whitebeam will be a more appropriate Sorbus species than wild service. Upland sites will require different species again and conifers might be considered, but the relative quantities of pioneer (10%), canopy (60%) and understorey (30%) should remain roughly the same. The spreadsheet below will allow you to design your own woodland.
Woodlands are generally described as covering an area, for example, a 10 hectare woodland. But a woodland with a complete understorey can be considered as a volume, so a 10 hectare woodland with a canopy reaching to 20 metres becomes 2 million cubic metres of the woodland ecosystem, with a further 100,000 cubic metres of the woodland soil ecosystem.
For the forester producing a crop of timber, the understorey is often considered a waste of space. After all it doesn’t produce timber of any value, but a good understorey is vital to produce good quality oak timber. The shade provided by the understorey keeps the stems of the oak trees clean and straight.
Trees planted to make an understorey should be partially shade tolerant. Their leaves will emerge early in Spring to make the best use of the light before they are shaded by the canopy trees.
Some understorey trees may try to compete for light with the canopy trees. These can be pollarded or coppiced later to keep them in the understorey.
The French have long had good success using hornbeam as an understorey for their magnificent oak woodlands. In lowland Britain, where grey squirrels strip the bark of young oak trees ruining their timber value, it is vital that field maple is included in the understorey of any new planting. All maples have a sweet sap which is favoured by grey squirrels. It doesn’t matter that the bark of the field maple is stripped, it will never make a good timber tree anyway. Planting new oak woods without maples in the understorey is asking for trouble. The simple act of planting sacrificial field maple in new broadleaved woodlands will do more than anything to ensure the future supply of quality oak timber from British woodlands. See blog on Grey Squirrels in Young Woodlands.
There is not the space here to give the attributes of every species that might be planted in a British woodland, but this chart shows the choice of species for a typical lowland wood on a loamy soil in eastern England.
All the species mentioned are compatible with the English Woodland Creation Offer (EWCO) grant, with the exception of ash which is not funded due to fears about Chalara infections. This is unfortunate because ash is a fundamental component of lowland British woodland ecosystems and an excellent timber tree as well. Ash can be planted successfully. Simple management techniques will help it to get through the vulnerable sapling stage. See blog on How to Grow Ash Trees Successfully.
The tree composition will be slightly different on different soils. Light, free draining soils could have sessile oak instead of pedunculate, rowan instead of wild service. Holly will also do well as part of the understorey. On shallow limestone soils all oaks will struggle and could be replaced by beech and ash. Whitebeam will be a more appropriate Sorbus species than wild service. Upland sites will require different species again and conifers might be considered, but the relative quantities of pioneer (10%), canopy (60%) and understorey (30%) should remain roughly the same. The spreadsheet below will allow you to design your own woodland.
“When using a spreadsheet to calculate the number of each species to buy, always adjust the total to give a multiple of 25. Tree nurseries bundle the trees in 25s or 50s, so they may offer a better price if they do not have to split a bundle. ”
Hugh Dorrington, Author of Grow your Own Wood
The tree composition will be slightly different on different soils. Light, free draining soils could have sessile oak instead of pedunculate, rowan instead of wild service. Holly will also do well as part of the understorey. On shallow limestone soils all oaks will struggle and could be replaced by beech and ash. Whitebeam will be a more appropriate Sorbus species than wild service. Upland sites will require different species again and conifers might be considered, but the relative quantities of pioneer (10%), canopy (60%) and understorey (30%) should remain roughly the same.
Provenance
A tree’s provenance is the place where the seed was collected from. In general foresters favour a closely defined provenance that is known for producing the fastest growing trees, or a provenance 2-300 miles south of the planting site that will cope best with expected climate change. Conservationists generally prefer a local provenance that will be best suited to the site.
In practice, it doesn’t matter too much for the understorey trees and the trees that will form the woodland edge. Generally, wild populations of trees and shrubs have a wide gene pool that allows them to adapt to different environments by natural selection. For our nursery we try to collect seed from several local sites and then mix them up to widen the gene pool still further.
It is more important to carefully select the provenance of trees that will form the canopy. The canopy trees will need to grow fast, tall and straight to establish their position in the sunlight. The best trees are those have been growing for thousands of years in dense forests where natural selection has ensured the survival of the fittest.
Since the last ice age British trees have generally grown in a more open landscape with greater pressure from wild and domesticated herbivores. This environment has selected for slower growing, branchy trees, Ideal or a savannah type woodland, but not suited to the competition of a closed woodland.
There is often concern that trees from the more continental climate of central Europe would be unable to adapt to the maritime climate of Britain. But look at the exotic trees from all over the world growing in British arboreta. They are thriving in the British climate but, because they are not native to Northwest Europe, they would struggle to survive and regenerate in a British woodland. There are exceptions to this rule of course (Rhododendrons in acid woodlands)
There are some quality stands of fine broadleaved trees in Britain, but in general broadleaved trees from central Europe are better suited to the closed canopy woodland ecosystem. If you are planting a more open savannah type woodland, trees of British provenance would be more suitable.
In practice, it doesn’t matter too much for the understorey trees and the trees that will form the woodland edge. Generally, wild populations of trees and shrubs have a wide gene pool that allows them to adapt to different environments by natural selection. For our nursery we try to collect seed from several local sites and then mix them up to widen the gene pool still further.
It is more important to carefully select the provenance of trees that will form the canopy. The canopy trees will need to grow fast, tall and straight to establish their position in the sunlight. The best trees are those have been growing for thousands of years in dense forests where natural selection has ensured the survival of the fittest.
Since the last ice age British trees have generally grown in a more open landscape with greater pressure from wild and domesticated herbivores. This environment has selected for slower growing, branchy trees, Ideal or a savannah type woodland, but not suited to the competition of a closed woodland.
There is often concern that trees from the more continental climate of central Europe would be unable to adapt to the maritime climate of Britain. But look at the exotic trees from all over the world growing in British arboreta. They are thriving in the British climate but, because they are not native to Northwest Europe, they would struggle to survive and regenerate in a British woodland. There are exceptions to this rule of course (Rhododendrons in acid woodlands)
There are some quality stands of fine broadleaved trees in Britain, but in general broadleaved trees from central Europe are better suited to the closed canopy woodland ecosystem. If you are planting a more open savannah type woodland, trees of British provenance would be more suitable.
Size & Age
Broadleaved trees are best planted as one year bare-rooted trees. These are inexpensive, easy to plant and protect, and quick to establish. They do need to be treated carefully. Roots should always be moist and kept in a bag until planted. Take extra care when the weather is sunny and windy. Evergreen broadleaves such as holly and yew are best planted as pot-grown stock.
One year bare-rooted trees are generally sold in size ranges, 20-40cm, 40-60cm or 60-80cm depending on the species and the growing season. The size is not critical, but it is easier to mix the species if they are all in the same size range.
One year bare-rooted trees are generally sold in size ranges, 20-40cm, 40-60cm or 60-80cm depending on the species and the growing season. The size is not critical, but it is easier to mix the species if they are all in the same size range.
Direct Sowing
Rather than plant a small tree you could of course do it nature’s way and sow a seed instead. Unfortunately, the chances of success with this method are very small – for many trees with small seeds it is a million to one chance that a seed landing on suitable ground will germinate and grow to maturity.
The exception is growing oak trees. We have had good success sowing acorns.
The exception is growing oak trees. We have had good success sowing acorns.
Dead wood
As a new natural woodland grows it will develop many woodland habitats with varying amounts of shade and shelter which will attract and provide homes for a wide variety of woodland wildlife. But there is one woodland habitat that will not occur naturally for many years - that is large dimension lying dead wood. This is an important habitat for insects and fungi.
As a new natural woodland grows it will develop many woodland habitats with varying amounts of shade and shelter which will attract and provide homes for a wide variety of woodland wildlife. But there is one woodland habitat that will not occur naturally for many years - that is large dimension lying dead wood. This is an important habitat for insects and fungi.
Spacing
When planting a mixed broadleaved woodland, trees should be planted at 2.5m spacing (1600 trees/ha) or 3m spacing (1100 trees/ha). This is wide by conventional forestry standards, but it allows the slower growing trees (oak, wild service) to get established before they are overshadowed by the faster growing trees (wild cherry, field maple). Planting at closer spacing is an unnecessary waste of resources and time. Thinning will eventually reduce the number of trees to around 5 metre spacing (400 trees/ha) anyway.
Planting patterns
When the plants have been ordered and some logs scattered around, it is time to mark out the site for planting. This is most easily done with a tractor mounted small tine that will scratch the surface of the soil. Once the planting lines have been formed the planter simply has to follow the lines, planting trees at a certain distance apart.
The simplest method of marking out a new woodland is to make a spiral pattern. Starting from the outside, scratch a mark around the outside of the site with gentle curves where the outside of the site is a straight line.
The simplest method of marking out a new woodland is to make a spiral pattern. Starting from the outside, scratch a mark around the outside of the site with gentle curves where the outside of the site is a straight line.
"I prefer an anticlockwise spiral then it is easy to walk around the inside of the line spraying herbicide with your knapsack lance in your right hand."
Hugh Dorrington, Author of Grow your Own Wood
Continue the spiral inwards with about 3 metres between the lines. This leaves enough room for a small tractor to mow between the lines. Cut across any developing sharp corners as shown in the photograph, this will leave small unplanted areas within the woodland. Stop scratching the ground when you get near the centre and leave this area unplanted as a woodland glade. Woodland rides 6 metres wide can then be superimposed on the site before planting. In the photo three woodland rides are just visible leading from the central glade to the outside of the wood.
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Advantages of such a spiral planting pattern are
1. Quick and easy to mark out. No measuring needed.
2. Creates a natural varied planting pattern without straight lines.
3. No need to leave room at the end of planting lines for tractor turning.
4. The important woodland edge trees can be planted in the two outside lines.
5. Maintenance is easy by following the spiral on foot or by tractor.
1. Quick and easy to mark out. No measuring needed.
2. Creates a natural varied planting pattern without straight lines.
3. No need to leave room at the end of planting lines for tractor turning.
4. The important woodland edge trees can be planted in the two outside lines.
5. Maintenance is easy by following the spiral on foot or by tractor.
Planting
Once the site has been marked out tree planting is quite straightforward. First plant the woodland edge shrubs in groups of 3 or 4 of the same species at 2 metre spacing. This will give each shrub plenty of room to grow and flower.
Moving to the woodland itself, it is important the all the trees are thoroughly mixed together before putting in the planting bag.
There are important reasons for planting new woodlands as an intimate mixture of species, rather than planting in single species groups:
1. Planting as a mixture allows the species composition of the wood to change in response to the environment, whereas group planting sets the species composition in stone for the next 50 years. For example, certain species will cope better with future climates than others. These species will thrive at the expense of other species, so the woodland can adapt to future environmental pressures AS THEY ARISE.
2. Pests and diseases love monocultures, even the mini monocultures that are group planting. If a species is widely scattered through a woodland, there is less chance of disease getting established and being able to spread.
3. It is impossible to know the exactly which trees will grow best when planting a new woodland. Soil conditions vary over even the smallest fields. Threats from future pests and diseases are simply unknown. It is unrealistic to expect the tree planter to know what trees will be thriving in 50 years. It is much simpler, quicker and more efficient for the tree planter to spread the trees evenly over the site and leave it to nature to decide which trees will grow best.
The tree planter has an important and often tedious job. He must be able to plant trees quickly and efficiently without wasting time measuring distances or rummaging around in his planting bag for the right species of tree. Taking the planting bag of pre-mixed trees, the planter starts at the outside edge of the pre-marked spiral and plants the first tree that comes to hand. The planter then walks 3 or 4 steps and plants the next tree. Planting stops to leave an open area in the centre that will become a woodland glade.
Cell-grown or pot grown trees do not mix easily with bare-rooted trees in the planting bag so, if you have any, these could be planted first throughout the site before the bare-rooted trees are planted.
Moving to the woodland itself, it is important the all the trees are thoroughly mixed together before putting in the planting bag.
There are important reasons for planting new woodlands as an intimate mixture of species, rather than planting in single species groups:
1. Planting as a mixture allows the species composition of the wood to change in response to the environment, whereas group planting sets the species composition in stone for the next 50 years. For example, certain species will cope better with future climates than others. These species will thrive at the expense of other species, so the woodland can adapt to future environmental pressures AS THEY ARISE.
2. Pests and diseases love monocultures, even the mini monocultures that are group planting. If a species is widely scattered through a woodland, there is less chance of disease getting established and being able to spread.
3. It is impossible to know the exactly which trees will grow best when planting a new woodland. Soil conditions vary over even the smallest fields. Threats from future pests and diseases are simply unknown. It is unrealistic to expect the tree planter to know what trees will be thriving in 50 years. It is much simpler, quicker and more efficient for the tree planter to spread the trees evenly over the site and leave it to nature to decide which trees will grow best.
The tree planter has an important and often tedious job. He must be able to plant trees quickly and efficiently without wasting time measuring distances or rummaging around in his planting bag for the right species of tree. Taking the planting bag of pre-mixed trees, the planter starts at the outside edge of the pre-marked spiral and plants the first tree that comes to hand. The planter then walks 3 or 4 steps and plants the next tree. Planting stops to leave an open area in the centre that will become a woodland glade.
Cell-grown or pot grown trees do not mix easily with bare-rooted trees in the planting bag so, if you have any, these could be planted first throughout the site before the bare-rooted trees are planted.
Herbivore Control
Broadleaved trees can withstand a certain amount of deer grazing. Even if the bark is totally stripped, most broadleaved trees will send up new shoots from the base, resulting in a multi-stemmed tree. Later, these trees could be pruned to a single stem if required. Shrubs have evolved to cope with browsing. They do not like the restrictions of a 1.2m shelter.
Beech and lime trees have drooping leading shoots. When these trees are growing inside a tall shelter, the shoot can get caught inside, damaging the young tree.
If your new planting has been badly damaged by deer, do not be tempted to clear the site and start again. This is never an economic course. Take measures to reduce the deer pressure and the woodland will recover.
Where deer pressure is high fencing may be necessary. Standard deer fencing, 1.8m high, is expensive and only works out cheaper than individual tree shelters on larger planting sites. There is a cheap and effective alternative – solar powered electric fencing.
Four strands of wire placed at 30cm, 60cm, 100cm and 140cm above ground supported on 1.8m stakes are enough to entice deer to try creeping through the fence rather than expend energy in jumping it. Once they have received a shock they will not return for a while. For further details see the Gillings Wood case study below.
If dogs are walked regularly over the planting site this will also dissuade deer.
Finally, if you have a really serious deer problem and none of these suggestions are practical, it is probably better to plant trees at a much wider 5 metre spacing with individual guards to create an open savannah type woodland. Or plant trees in small, fenced groups. If there is less deer pressure in the future, trees may spread out from these small fenced islands.
Beech and lime trees have drooping leading shoots. When these trees are growing inside a tall shelter, the shoot can get caught inside, damaging the young tree.
If your new planting has been badly damaged by deer, do not be tempted to clear the site and start again. This is never an economic course. Take measures to reduce the deer pressure and the woodland will recover.
Where deer pressure is high fencing may be necessary. Standard deer fencing, 1.8m high, is expensive and only works out cheaper than individual tree shelters on larger planting sites. There is a cheap and effective alternative – solar powered electric fencing.
Four strands of wire placed at 30cm, 60cm, 100cm and 140cm above ground supported on 1.8m stakes are enough to entice deer to try creeping through the fence rather than expend energy in jumping it. Once they have received a shock they will not return for a while. For further details see the Gillings Wood case study below.
If dogs are walked regularly over the planting site this will also dissuade deer.
Finally, if you have a really serious deer problem and none of these suggestions are practical, it is probably better to plant trees at a much wider 5 metre spacing with individual guards to create an open savannah type woodland. Or plant trees in small, fenced groups. If there is less deer pressure in the future, trees may spread out from these small fenced islands.
Weed Control
Ex arable sites may be ideal for tree growth, but their fertility also encourages weed growth that can smother young trees. Weed control for the first two years, until the trees are established, speeds up successful establishment.
Mulch mats are often suggested as alternatives to chemical weed control. Unfortunately, they are extremely labour intensive, expensive and of limited effectiveness. As planting contractors, we refuse to spend days on our hands and knees in the cold mud trying to pin down thousands of flappy squares of plastic, all because someone has ticked a “no chemicals” box.
Woodchip could be spread around the base of each tree. If you have volunteer help and a cheap, or free, source of woodchip, this is a good method of weed control. It also keeps moisture in the ground and incorporates carbon into the soil. Boston Woods Trust have recently mulched 17,000 trees with two wheelbarrows of woodchip around each tree! All done with volunteer labour.
In most cases weed control is most easily done by spraying herbicide around each tree with a knapsack sprayer. Arable fields will already have been sprayed with pesticides hundreds of times, a few more spot treatments with a knapsack sprayer won’t make any difference. Alternatively, don’t do any weed control. Establishment will be much slower, and some trees will be smothered, but you should get there in the end.
Mulch mats are often suggested as alternatives to chemical weed control. Unfortunately, they are extremely labour intensive, expensive and of limited effectiveness. As planting contractors, we refuse to spend days on our hands and knees in the cold mud trying to pin down thousands of flappy squares of plastic, all because someone has ticked a “no chemicals” box.
Woodchip could be spread around the base of each tree. If you have volunteer help and a cheap, or free, source of woodchip, this is a good method of weed control. It also keeps moisture in the ground and incorporates carbon into the soil. Boston Woods Trust have recently mulched 17,000 trees with two wheelbarrows of woodchip around each tree! All done with volunteer labour.
In most cases weed control is most easily done by spraying herbicide around each tree with a knapsack sprayer. Arable fields will already have been sprayed with pesticides hundreds of times, a few more spot treatments with a knapsack sprayer won’t make any difference. Alternatively, don’t do any weed control. Establishment will be much slower, and some trees will be smothered, but you should get there in the end.
If the vegetation is high first mow a narrow strip 1 metre wide around the inside of each row. Spot spraying with glyphosate around each planted tree in April for the first 2 years after planting is generally sufficient. After that there should be little need to spray chemicals on the site again. The guards suggested above for protection against rabbits and hares also offer spray protection for the planted trees.
After two summers of growth the young trees should be strong enough to cope with the weed pressure. In fact, the surrounding vegetation will act as a windbreak and sunscreen for the growing trees, as shown in the photo above. Now the hard work is done. The trees are growing strongly and, in a few years, will start to shade out the ground vegetation.
After two summers of growth the young trees should be strong enough to cope with the weed pressure. In fact, the surrounding vegetation will act as a windbreak and sunscreen for the growing trees, as shown in the photo above. Now the hard work is done. The trees are growing strongly and, in a few years, will start to shade out the ground vegetation.
Replacing losses
Foresters call this operation “beating up”. It is seldom necessary unless something disastrous has happened, but planting grant specifications often write, “all losses to be replaced like for like with the same species”. If you are going to plant some more trees the following year, try using different species that you were unable to source first time around. If a certain species has failed the first time it was planted, the chances are that it will fail again.Foresters call this operation “beating up”.
It is seldom necessary unless something disastrous has happened, but planting grant specifications often write, “all losses to be replaced like for like with the same species”. If you are going to plant some more trees the following year, try using different species that you were unable to source first time around. If a certain species has failed the first time it was planted, the chances are that it will fail again.
It is seldom necessary unless something disastrous has happened, but planting grant specifications often write, “all losses to be replaced like for like with the same species”. If you are going to plant some more trees the following year, try using different species that you were unable to source first time around. If a certain species has failed the first time it was planted, the chances are that it will fail again.
Case study:
Gillings Wood
Gillings Wood
Gillings Wood was planted in Spring 2019 on agricultural land that had not had a crop for several years. The heavy clay soil was full of weed seeds that would soon smother any crop. In addition, the site was in a quiet corner of the farm with a lot of cover nearby. Muntjac, roe and fallow deer were all present in the area. No grant aid was sought for planting this challenging site, so we were able to use innovative ideas gained from 40 years’ experience of woodland planting. Nevertheless, the planting had to be done as cheaply and effectively as possible.
The long rectangular field was marked out as a simple spiral with a 10 metre wide open strip in the middle, accessed by a 6 metre ride to one corner of the wood. Mixed broadleaved trees and shrubs were planted at 2.5m spacing throughout. Each tree was protected with a second hand 60cm guard that had been used for several years on another planting site. The guards were supported by (new) 90cm canes (12-14lb/100). The guards were largely effective at preventing damage from the large rabbit and hare population. They also allowed spot spraying around the trees with a herbicide to control weed growth.
Deer protection was provided by an S20 Gallagher solar charger attached to just three strands of electric wire. The wires were supported by insulators on 1.8m stakes. Obviously, this fence was not totally deer proof but, by positioning the electric wires at 30cm, 60cm and 100cm above ground, the deer were encouraged to try creeping through the wires rather than expend energy in leaping them. A wet nose touching the wires on a dewy morning gave them a shock that they remembered for a long time. The fence line was regularly sprayed and mown to prevent vegetation from touching the lines.
For two years the solar charger kept all deer out of the new wood. A one metre wide strip was flailed along the spiral planting lines and the young trees spot sprayed with Glyphosate twice during each Summer. The trees thrived, sheltered by the rampant weed growth of docks, nettles and thistles.
In Spring 2021 we were slow to flail the lines in preparation for spot treatment. By late April the site was alive with singing whitethroats so we decided that we could leave the young trees to fend for themselves. Dense weed growth soon made the wood impenetrable, and inspections were carried out from the outside. From here we could see that the young trees were successfully emerging from the weed growth.
In July 2021 it was noticed that some trees on the woodland edge had been grazed by deer. We realised that our electric fence had been breached, even though the solar charger was still operating effectively. We beat through the wood with dogs and flushed at least one muntjac and a roe deer. I was dismayed to see that the deer had obviously been living in the wood totally undisturbed for several months. They had been bark stripping trees over 2 metres tall and browsing smaller trees.
It was impossible to flail along all the planting lines again because the dense weed growth made it difficult to see all the planted trees. The rides and central strip were flailed in August. This allowed access and the wood is now regularly visited with dogs. Most of the damaged trees will recover if we can keep the deer out for a few more years. Meanwhile we have screwed insulators into the top of the fence posts and added a fourth electric line 1.4 metres above ground level. This has been most effective. All new electric deer fencing will use four wires at 30cm, 60cm, 100cm and 140cm above ground level.
Most of the trees that had been browsed have now recovered. Most of those that had been bark stripped are now growing back as multistems.
The lesson we have learnt is that protecting young woodlands with electric fencing is cheap and 90% effective. But the new woodland must be visited with dogs at least once a month during the summer to avoid any deer taking up residence. This is easy for a private woodland or a community woodland that has local involvement. It is not so easy for woodlands which are planted as a one-off operation and managed by contractors on an ad hoc basis.
For two years the solar charger kept all deer out of the new wood. A one metre wide strip was flailed along the spiral planting lines and the young trees spot sprayed with Glyphosate twice during each Summer. The trees thrived, sheltered by the rampant weed growth of docks, nettles and thistles.
In Spring 2021 we were slow to flail the lines in preparation for spot treatment. By late April the site was alive with singing whitethroats so we decided that we could leave the young trees to fend for themselves. Dense weed growth soon made the wood impenetrable, and inspections were carried out from the outside. From here we could see that the young trees were successfully emerging from the weed growth.
In July 2021 it was noticed that some trees on the woodland edge had been grazed by deer. We realised that our electric fence had been breached, even though the solar charger was still operating effectively. We beat through the wood with dogs and flushed at least one muntjac and a roe deer. I was dismayed to see that the deer had obviously been living in the wood totally undisturbed for several months. They had been bark stripping trees over 2 metres tall and browsing smaller trees.
It was impossible to flail along all the planting lines again because the dense weed growth made it difficult to see all the planted trees. The rides and central strip were flailed in August. This allowed access and the wood is now regularly visited with dogs. Most of the damaged trees will recover if we can keep the deer out for a few more years. Meanwhile we have screwed insulators into the top of the fence posts and added a fourth electric line 1.4 metres above ground level. This has been most effective. All new electric deer fencing will use four wires at 30cm, 60cm, 100cm and 140cm above ground level.
Most of the trees that had been browsed have now recovered. Most of those that had been bark stripped are now growing back as multistems.
The lesson we have learnt is that protecting young woodlands with electric fencing is cheap and 90% effective. But the new woodland must be visited with dogs at least once a month during the summer to avoid any deer taking up residence. This is easy for a private woodland or a community woodland that has local involvement. It is not so easy for woodlands which are planted as a one-off operation and managed by contractors on an ad hoc basis.
Herbivores, principally voles, rabbits, hares and all species of deer, must be prevented from eating the trees before they are established. In woodland planting this has often meant the use of large quantities of plastic as tree shelters. There are alternatives which are more environmentally friendly and better for tree establishment.
The order of priorities should be first to reduce, then re-use and - as a last resort – recycle. Plastic manufacturers are keen to promote recycling of plastic shelters, although this is very difficult, time consuming and seldom done in practise. They are also keen to sell biodegradable shelters, but these often degrade too quickly to be effective or too slowly. They are also even more expensive. They are less keen, for obvious reasons, to promote re-using and reducing the use of plastic tree shelters.
Voles, rabbits and hares can be prevented from eating young trees with a 60cm tall, 4cm diameter spiral or solid guard supported by a 90cm bamboo cane. Sometimes a hare can still reach up and take out a shoot, but the tree will soon grow another one, so it is not worth using a guard greater than 60cm tall.
Bushy shrubs may require wider shelters but doubling the width of a shelter doubles the amount of plastic. Much better to plant single stemmed one year old shrubs, then there is no need to use a guard wider than 5cm.
Beech and lime struggle in a narrow tree guard because their shoots have a drooping tip which gets caught inside the guard. These trees are best planted as 60-80cm plants so that the leading shoot is already outside the guard at the time of planting.
Trees require taller shelters to protect them from deer. Taller shelters require larger stakes to support them and soon it is getting out of hand with the cost of protecting the tree several times more than the cost of buying and planting the tree.
There are alternative ways of protecting trees from deer damage that do not involve covering the countryside with row upon row of 1.2 metre tall tree shelters.
The order of priorities should be first to reduce, then re-use and - as a last resort – recycle. Plastic manufacturers are keen to promote recycling of plastic shelters, although this is very difficult, time consuming and seldom done in practise. They are also keen to sell biodegradable shelters, but these often degrade too quickly to be effective or too slowly. They are also even more expensive. They are less keen, for obvious reasons, to promote re-using and reducing the use of plastic tree shelters.
Voles, rabbits and hares can be prevented from eating young trees with a 60cm tall, 4cm diameter spiral or solid guard supported by a 90cm bamboo cane. Sometimes a hare can still reach up and take out a shoot, but the tree will soon grow another one, so it is not worth using a guard greater than 60cm tall.
Bushy shrubs may require wider shelters but doubling the width of a shelter doubles the amount of plastic. Much better to plant single stemmed one year old shrubs, then there is no need to use a guard wider than 5cm.
Beech and lime struggle in a narrow tree guard because their shoots have a drooping tip which gets caught inside the guard. These trees are best planted as 60-80cm plants so that the leading shoot is already outside the guard at the time of planting.
Trees require taller shelters to protect them from deer. Taller shelters require larger stakes to support them and soon it is getting out of hand with the cost of protecting the tree several times more than the cost of buying and planting the tree.
There are alternative ways of protecting trees from deer damage that do not involve covering the countryside with row upon row of 1.2 metre tall tree shelters.